Generic Name: Chloramphenicol
Class: Chloramphenicol
VA Class: AM150
CAS Number: 56-75-7
Serious and fatal blood dyscrasias (aplastic anemia, hypoplastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, granulocytopenia) can occur after short-term or prolonged therapy.a Chloramphenicol-associated aplastic anemia (terminating in leukemia) has been reported.a (See Hematologic Effects under Cautions.)
Use only when other potentially less hazardous anti-infectives cannot be used or would be ineffective.a Do not use for trivial infections or when not indicated (e.g., for colds, influenza, throat infections, prophylaxis).a
It is essential that adequate blood studies be performed during chloramphenicol treatment.a While such studies may detect early peripheral blood changes (e.g., leukopenia, reticulocytopenia, granulocytopenia) before they become irreversible, such studies cannot be relied on to detect bone marrow depression prior to development of aplastic anemia.a
To facilitate appropriate blood studies and observation, patient should be hospitalized while receiving chloramphenicol.a
Introduction
Antibacterial; broad-spectrum antibiotic used only in serious infections caused by susceptible bacteria when less hazardous anti-infectives are ineffective or contraindicated.132 a
Uses for Chloromycetin Sodium Succinate
Meningitis
Treatment of meningitis caused by susceptible bacteria, including Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, or Streptococcus pneumoniae.106 112 132 144 149 a Generally used only when penicillins and cephalosporins are contraindicated or ineffective.101 102 104 105 106 132 149 A regimen of ampicillin and chloramphenicol may be used as an alternative to cefotaxime or ceftriaxone for treatment of H. influenzae meningitis.132
Do not use for treatment of meningitis caused by penicillin-resistant S. pneumoniae132 149 unless the chloramphenicol minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) is ≤4 mcg/mL.132 149
Do not use for treatment of meningitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes144 or gram-negative bacilli.147
Anthrax
Alternative for treatment of anthrax†,165 166 170 especially anthrax meningoencephalitis.165 166
Component of multiple-drug parenteral regimens recommended for treatment of inhalational anthrax that occurs as the result of exposure to B. anthracis spores in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.164 167 Initiate treatment with IV ciprofloxacin or doxycycline and 1 or 2 other anti-infective agents predicted to be effective (e.g., chloramphenicol, clindamycin, rifampin, vancomycin, clarithromycin, imipenem, penicillin, ampicillin);164 167 if meningitis is established or suspected, use IV ciprofloxacin (rather than doxycycline) and chloramphenicol, rifampin, or penicillin.164
Brucellosis
Treatment of brucellosis†; used with or without streptomycin as an alternative to a tetracycline regimen.106
Burkholderia Infections
Treatment of infections caused by Burkholderia cepacia† (e.g., in cystic fibrosis patients, immunocompromised patients).106 Co-trimoxazole considered drug of choice; chloramphenicol, ceftazidime, or imipenem are alternatives.106
Treatment of glanders† caused by B. mallei; used in conjunction with streptomycin as an alternative to tetracycline and streptomycin.106
Treatment of melioidosis† caused by B. pseudomallei; used in a multiple-drug regimen with doxycycline and co-trimoxazole.106 154 Ceftazidime or imipenem monotherapy may be preferred.106 152 153 154 156 B. pseudomallei is difficult to eradicate and relapse of melioidosis is common.152 153 154 156
Chlamydial Infections
Treatment of psittacosis† (ornithosis) caused by Chlamydia psittaci.106 132 Alternative to tetracyclines.106
Clostridium Infections
Alternative to penicillin G or clindamycin for treatment of infections caused by Clostridium perfringens†.106 132
Ehrlichiosis
Treatment of ehrlichiosis† caused by Ehrlichia chaffeensis.106 159 160 Recommended as an alternative to tetracyclines,106 but efficacy has not been established.132 159
Plague
Alternative for treatment of plague† caused by Yersinia pestis, including naturally occurring or endemic plague or pneumonic plague that occurs following exposure to Y. pestisin the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.106 132 133 168 Regimen of choice is streptomycin (or gentamicin) with or without doxycycline.106 132 168 170 Alternatives include doxycycline (or tetracycline), chloramphenicol, co-trimoxazole (may be less effective than other alternatives), or ciprofloxacin (or another fluoroquinolone).132 168 170
Treatment of plague meningitis; drug of choice.132 170
Rat-bite Fever
Alternative to penicillin G for treatment of rat-bite fever† caused by Streptobacillus moniliformis or Spirillum minus.132
Rickettsial Infections
Alternative to tetracyclines for treatment of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and other rickettsial infections.102 104 105 106 132 135
Tularemia
Alternative to streptomycin (or gentamicin) for treatment of tularemia† caused by Francisella tularensis,106 132 133 169 including naturally occurring or endemic tularemia or tularemia that occurs following exposure to F. tularensis in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.169 170
Typhoid Fever
Treatment of typhoid fever caused by susceptible Salmonella typhi.106 132 134 136 139 140 a Drugs of choice are third generation cephalosporins (e.g., ceftriaxone, cefotaxime) or fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin); chloramphenicol is an alternative.106 132 139 150 151
Do not use to treat S. typhi carriers.101 104 110 112 a
Vibrio Infections
Treatment of cholera† caused by Vibrio cholerae.106 123 128 129 130 Alternative to tetracyclines;123 128 129 130 132 used as an adjunct to fluid and electrolyte replacement in moderate to severe disease.106 132
Chloromycetin Sodium Succinate Dosage and Administration
General
Because differences between therapeutic and toxic plasma concentrations of chloramphenicol are narrow and because of interindividual differences in metabolism and elimination of the drug, most clinicians recommend that plasma concentrations of chloramphenicol be monitored in all patients.101 102 104 105 107 108 109 114 115 Some experts suggest chloramphenicol dosage be adjusted to maintain plasma concentrations at 5–20 mcg/mL.101 102 104 105 107 108
Administration
Chloramphenicol is administered IV.a Do not administer IM since this route may be ineffective.a
Administer IV chloramphenicol no longer than necessary; change to an oral regimen of another appropriate anti-infective as soon as practical.a
Repeated courses of chloramphenicol should be avoided if at all possible.a
IV Administration
Reconstitution
Reconstitute vial containing 1 g of chloramphenicol by adding 10 mL of an aqueous diluent (e.g., sterile water for injection, 5% dextrose injection) to provide a solution containing 100 mg/mL.a
Rate of Administration
Inject calculated dose IV over a period of ≥1 minute.a
Dosage
Available as chloramphenicol sodium succinate; dosage expressed in terms of chloramphenicol.a
Pediatric Patients
General Dosage for Neonates
IV
25 mg/kg daily given in 4 equally divided doses every 6 hours during the first 2 weeks of life.102 112 a Full-term neonates >2 weeks of age may receive 50 mg/kg daily given in 4 equally divided doses every 6 hours.a
General Dosage for Children >1 Month of Age
IV
50 mg/kg daily given in equally divided doses every 6 hours.102 112 132 a
Up to 100 mg/kg daily may be required in infections caused by less susceptible organisms or if necessary to achieve adequate CSF concentrations.112 132 a However, because of concern that toxic chloramphenicol concentrations may occur with this high dosage, some clinicians suggest that 75 mg/kg daily be used initially in the treatment of these infections.102 105 Dosage should be reduced to 50 mg/kg daily as soon as possible.112 a
General Dosage for Pediatric Patients with Immature Metabolic Processes
IV
25 mg/kg daily will usually produce therapeutic blood concentrations in young infants and other pediatric patients in whom immature metabolic functions are suspected.a
Monitoring chloramphenicol plasma concentrations is particularly important in these patients.a
Anthrax†
Treatment of Anthrax (Inhalational, GI, Meningeal, Septicemia)†
IV
50–75 mg/kg daily given in 4 divided doses.165
Meningoencephalitis caused by B. anthracis may require 1 g every 4 hours.166
Used in multiple-drug regimens that initially include IV ciprofloxacin or IV doxycycline and 1 or 2 other anti-infectives predicted to be effective.164 167
Duration of treatment is 60 days if anthrax occurred as the result of exposure to anthrax spores in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.164 167
Plague†
IV
25 mg/kg 4 times daily for 10 days for treatment of pneumonic plague† that occurs as the result of exposure to Y. pestis in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.168
Initial loading dose of 25 mg/kg followed by 15 mg/kg 4 times daily for 10–14 days for treatment of plague meningitis.170
Tularemia†
IV
15 mg/kg 4 times daily given for 14–21 days for treatment of tularemia† that occurs as the result of exposure to F. tularensis in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.169
Typhoid Fever
IV
50 mg/kg daily in equally divided doses every 6 hours given for 14–15 days.134 139 140
Adults
General Adult Dosage
IV
50 mg/kg daily given in equally divided doses every 6 hours.102 112 a
In infections caused by less susceptible organisms or if necessary to achieve adequate CSF concentrations, up to 100 mg/kg daily may be required.112 c However, because of concern that toxic plasma chloramphenicol concentrations may occur with this high dosage, some clinicians suggest that 75 mg/kg daily be used initially in the treatment of these infections.102 105 Dosage should be reduced to 50 mg/kg daily as soon as possible.112 c
Anthrax†
Treatment of Anthrax (Inhalational, GI, Meningeal, Septicemia)†
IV
50–100 mg/kg daily in 4 divided doses.165
Meningoencephalitis caused by B. anthracis may require 1 g every 4 hours.166
Used in multiple-drug regimens that initially include IV ciprofloxacin or IV doxycycline and 1 or 2 other anti-infectives predicted to be effective.164 167
Duration of treatment is 60 days if anthrax occurred as the result of exposure to anthrax spores in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.164 167
Plague†
IV
25 mg/kg 4 times daily given for 10 days for treatment of pneumonic plague† that occurs as the result of exposure to Y. pestis in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.168
Initial loading dose of 25 mg/kg followed by 15 mg/kg 4 times daily given for 10–14 days for treatment of plague meningitis.170
Tularemia†
IV
15 mg/kg 4 times daily given for 14–21 days for treatment of tularemia† that occurs as the result of exposure to F. tularensis in the context of biologic warfare or bioterrorism.169
Typhoid Fever
IV
50 mg/kg daily in equally divided doses every 6 hours given for 14–15 days.134 139 140
Prescribing Limits
Pediatric Patients
Maximum 25 mg/kg daily in 4 divided doses in neonates <2 weeks of age.a Higher dosage in these neonates should be used only to maintain blood concentrations within a therapeutically effective range.a
Special Populations
Hepatic Impairment
Reduce dosage in proportion to the degree of impairment.a Closely monitor plasma chloramphenicol concentrations, especially in pediatric patients.a
Renal Impairment
Reduce dosage in proportion to the degree of impairment.a Closely monitor plasma chloramphenicol concentrations, especially in pediatric patients.a
Cautions for Chloromycetin Sodium Succinate
Contraindications
Known hypersensitivity to chloramphenicol.a
History of previous toxic reaction to chloramphenicol.a
Trivial infections or when not indicated (e.g., colds, influenza, throat infections, prophylaxis).a
Warnings/Precautions
Warnings
Hematologic Effects
Serious and potentially fatal blood dyscrasias (aplastic anemia, hypoplastic anemia, thrombocytopenia, granulocytopenia) reported with both short-term and prolonged use.a An irreversible type of bone marrow depression leading to aplastic anemia with a high mortality rate has occurred.a
Dose-related, reversible bone marrow depression may occur.a This type of bone marrow depression is characterized by vacuolization of erythroid cells, reduction in reticulocytes and leukopenia, and usually responds promptly to discontinuance of chloramphenicol.a
Hematologic function should be evaluated prior to and approximately every 2 days during chloramphenicol therapy.a Consider that such studies do not exclude the possible later appearance of the irreversible type of bone marrow depression.a
Discontinue chloramphenicol if reticulocytopenia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia, or any other blood study findings attributable to the drug occur.a
Sensitivity Reactions
Hypersensitivity Reactions
Fever, macular and vesicular rash, angioedema, urticaria, and anaphylaxis may occur.a
General Precautions
Selection and Use of Anti-infectives
To reduce development of drug-resistant bacteria and maintain effectiveness of chloramphenicol and other antibacterials, use only for treatment or prevention of infections proven or strongly suspected to be caused by susceptible bacteria.a
When selecting or modifying anti-infective therapy, use results of culture and in vitro susceptibility testing.a
Chloramphenicol may be initiated pending results of in vitro susceptibility testing, but should be discontinued if the causative organism is found to be susceptible to potentially less hazardous anti-infectives.a A decision to continue use of chloramphenicol rather than switching to a less hazardous anti-infective should be based on severity of the infection, susceptibility of the causative organism to the other anti-infectives, and efficacy of the various drugs in the specific infection type.a
Repeated courses of chloramphenicol should be avoided if at all possible.a Treatment should not be continued longer than required to produce a cure with little or no risk or relapse.a
Superinfection
Possible emergence and overgrowth of nonsusceptible bacteria or fungi.a Discontinue drug and institute appropriate therapy if superinfection occurs.a
CNS Effects
Headache, mild depression, metal confusion, and delirium have been reported.a
Optic and peripheral neuritis reported, usually following long-term therapy.a Promptly discontinue chloramphenicol if this occurs.a
Sodium Content
Contains approximately 52 mg (2.25 mEq) of sodium per g of chloramphenicol sodium succinate.a
Specific Populations
Pregnancy
Category C.a
Lactation
Distributed into milk; discontinue nursing or the drug.a
Pediatric Use
Use with caution in premature and full-term neonates and infants because of potential for gray syndrome toxicity.a
Gray syndrome can be fatal within a few hours of symptom onset; symptoms include abdominal distension (with or without emesis), progressive pallid cyanosis, and vasomotor collapse (frequently accompanied by irregular respiration).a Syndrome may be reversible if drug discontinued at early evidence of symptoms.a
Immature metabolic processes in neonates and infants may result in excessive chloramphenicol concentrations.a Adjust dosage accordingly and monitor blood concentrations at appropriate intervals.a
Hepatic Impairment
Excessive chloramphenicol concentration may occur in patients with impaired hepatic function.a Decrease dosage accordingly.a Determine chloramphenicol concentrations at appropriate intervals.a
Renal Impairment
Excessive chloramphenicol concentrations may occur in patients with impaired renal function.a Decrease dosage accordingly.a Determine chloramphenicol concentrations at appropriate intervals.a
Common Adverse Effects
Hematologic effects (blood dyscrasias, bone marrow depression); GI effects (nausea, vomiting, glossitis, stomatitis, diarrhea, enterocolitis).a
Interactions for Chloromycetin Sodium Succinate
Specific Drugs
Drug
|
Interaction
|
Comments
|
|---|
Antianemia agents
|
Possible delayed response to iron preparations, vitamin B12, or folic acidc
|
Concomitant use of iron preparations, vitamin B12, or folic acid should be avoided if possiblec
|
Anticoagulants, oral
|
Possible increased anticoagulant effect;c chloramphenicol may impair utilization of prothrombin or decrease vitamin K production by intestinal bacteriac
|
|
β-Lactam antibiotics
|
In vitro evidence of antagonism with penicillins or cephalosporinsc
|
Concomitant use with penicillins or cephalosporins not recommendedc
|
Myelosuppressive agents
|
Potential additive bone marrow depressiona c
|
Avoid concomitant use with other drugs that may cause bone marrow depressiona c
|
Phenobarbital
|
Possible decreased chloramphenicol concentrationsc
|
Monitor chloramphenicol concentrations in patients receiving concomitant phenobarbitalc
|
Rifampin
|
Possible decreased chloramphenicol concentrations103
|
|
Chloromycetin Sodium Succinate Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
Bioavailability
Inactive until chloramphenicol sodium succinate is hydrolyzed in vivo to active chloramphenicol, presumably by esterases in liver, kidneys, and lungs.102 107
Bioavailability following IV administration varies; there is considerable interindividual variation in plasma chloramphenicol concentrations.101 102 107 109 114
Distribution
Extent
Widely distributed into most body tissues and fluids, including saliva, ascitic fluid, pleural fluid, synovial fluid, and aqueous and vitreous humor.c Highest concentrations attained in liver and kidneys.c
CSF concentrations may be 21–50% of concurrent plasma concentrations in patients with uninflamed meninges and 45–89% of concurrent plasma concentrations in patients with inflamed meninges.c
Crosses the placenta and is distributed into milk.a
Plasma Protein Binding
Approximately 60%.c
Elimination
Metabolism
Chloramphenicol sodium succinate hydrolyzed to active chloramphenicol, presumably by esterases in liver, kidneys, and lungs.102 107 Rate and extent of hydrolysis is highly variable.101 102 107 109 114
Chloramphenicol inactivated principally in the liver by glucuronyl transferase.c
Elimination Route
Eliminated in urine by glomerular filtration or active tubular secretion.c Approximately 30% of an IV dose excreted unchanged in urine, but fraction excreted in urine varies considerably and may range from 6–80% in neonates and children.102 107 109
Half-life
Adults with normal renal and hepatic function: plasma half-life 1.5–4.1 hours.101 104 107
Neonates and infants: plasma half-life ≥24 hours in neonates 1–2 days of age and approximately 10 hours in those 10–16 days of age.c Premature infants and neonates have immature mechanisms for glucuronide conjugation and excretion which results in higher and more prolonged chloramphenicol concentrations.c
Special Populations
Patients with impaired hepatic function: plasma half-life prolonged.c
Patients with impaired renal function: plasma half-life not substantially prolonged, but half-lives of the inactive conjugated metabolites may be prolonged.c
Stability
Storage
Parenteral
Powder for Injection
15–25°C.a
Compatibility
For information on systemic interactions resulting from concomitant use, see Interactions.
Parenteral
Solution CompatibilityHID
Compatible
|
|---|
Dextran 40,000
|
Dextran 6% in dextrose 5%
|
Dextran 6% in sodium chloride 0.9%
|
Dextrose–Ringer’s injection combinations
|
Dextrose–Ringer’s injection, lactated, combinations
|
Dextrose 5% in Ringer’s injection, lactated
|
Dextrose–saline combinations
|
Dextrose 5% in sodium chloride 0.9%
|
Dextrose 2½, 5, or 10% in water
|
Fat emulsion 10%, intravenous
|
Fructose 10% in sodium chloride 0.9%
|
Fructose 10% in water
|
Invert sugar 5 and 10% in sodium chloride 0.9%
|
Invert sugar 5 and 10% in water
|
Ionosol products
|
Normosol M in dextrose 5% in water
|
Normosol R
|
Ringer’s injection
|
Ringer's injection, lactated
|
Sodium chloride 0.45 or 0.9%
|
Sodium lactate (1/6) M
|
Drug Compatibility
Admixture CompatibilityHID
Compatible
|
|---|
Amikacin sulfate
|
Aminophylline
|
Ascorbic acid injection
|
Calcium chloride
|
Calcium gluconate
|
Colistimethate sodium
|
Cyanocobalamin
|
Dimenhydrinate
|
Dopamine HCl
|
Ephedrine sulfate
|
Heparin sodium
|
Hydrocortisone sodium succinate
|
Kanamycin
|
Lidocaine HCl
|
Magnesium sulfate
|
Metaraminol bitartrate
|
Methyldopate HCl
|
Methylprednisolone sodium succinate
|
Metronidazole
|
Metronidazole HCl with sodium bicarbonate
|
Nafcillin sodium
|
Oxacillin sodium
|
Oxytocin
|
Penicillin G potassium
|
Penicillin G sodium
|
Pentobarbial sodium
|
Phenylephrine HCl
|
Phenlephrine HCl with sodium bicarbonate
|
Phytonadione
|
Plasma protein fraction
|
Potassium chloride
|
Promazine HCl
|
Ranitidine HCl
|
Sodium bicarbonate
|
Sodium bicarbonate with phenylephrine HCl
|
Thiopental sodium
|
Verapamil HCl
|
Vitamin B complex with C
|
Incompatible
|
|---|
Chlorpromazine HCl
|
Hydroxyzine HCl
|
Polymyxin B sulfate
|
Prochlorperazine edisylate
|
Prochlorperazine mesylate
|
Promethazine HCl
|
Vancomycin
|
Y-Site CompatibilityHID
Compatible
|
|---|
Acyclovir sodium
|
Cyclophosphamide
|
Enalaprilat
|
Esmolol HCl
|
Foscarnet sodium
|
Hydromorphone HCl
|
Labetalol HCl
|
Magnesium sulfate
|
Meperidine HCl
|
Morphine sulfate
|
Nicardipine HCl
|
Perphenazine
|
Tacrolimus
|
Incompatible
|
|---|
Fluconazole
|
Actions and SpectrumActions
Usually bacteriostatic in action, but may be bactericidal in high concentrations or against highly susceptible organisms.c
Inhibits protein synthesis in susceptible organisms by binding to 50S ribosomal subunits.c Also inhibits protein synthesis in rapidly proliferating mammalian cells; reversible bone marrow depression reported during chloramphenicol therapy may occur because of inhibition of protein synthesis in mitochondria of bone marrow cells.c
Inactive until chloramphenicol sodium succinate is hydrolyzed in vivo to active chloramphenicol.102 107
Spectrum of activity includes many gram-positive and -negative aerobic bacteria, many anaerobic bacteria, and some other organisms (e.g., Rickettsia, Chlamydia, and Mycoplasma).c Inactive against fungi and viruses.c
Gram-positive aerobes: active against Streptococcus pneumoniae and other streptococci.104 110 c Also active in vitro against Bacillus anthracis.161 167
Gram-negative aerobes: active against some strains of Brucella, Burkholderia mallei, B. cepacia, Francisella tularensis, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella, and Shigella,104 110 Vibrio cholerae, and Yersinia pestis,171 172
Anaerobes: active against Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium, Fusobacterium, Prevotella melaninogenica, and Veillonella.104 110
Resistance has been reported in staphylococci, S. pneumoniae,126 131 Escherichia coli, H. influenzae,104 110 125 Neisseria meningitidis, Salmonella, and Shigella.142
Advice to Patients
Advise patients that antibacterials (including chloramphenicol) should only be used to treat bacterial infections and not used to treat viral infections (e.g., the common cold).a
Importance of informing clinicians of existing or contemplated concomitant therapy, including prescription and OTC drugs.a
Importance of women informing clinician if they are or plan to become pregnant or plan to breast-feed.a
Importance of advising patients of other important precautionary information.a (See Cautions.)
Preparations
Excipients in commercially available drug preparations may have clinically important effects in some individuals; consult specific product labeling for details.
* available from one or more manufacturer, distributor, and/or repackager by generic (nonproprietary) name
Chloramphenicol Sodium Succinate
Routes
|
Dosage Forms
|
Strengths
|
Brand Names
|
Manufacturer
|
|---|
Parenteral
|
For injection
|
1 g (of chloramphenicol)*
|
Chloramphenicol Sodium Succinate Sterile
|
American Pharmaceutical Partners
|
|
|
|
Chloromycetin Sodium Succinate
|
Monarch
|
Disclaimer
This report on medications is for your information only, and is not considered individual patient advice. Because of the changing nature of drug information, please consult your physician or pharmacist about specific clinical use.
The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com represent that the information provided hereunder was formulated with a reasonable standard of care, and in conformity with professional standards in the field. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com make no representations or warranties, express or implied, including, but not limited to, any implied warranty of merchantability and/or fitness for a particular purpose, with respect to such information and specifically disclaims all such warranties. Users are advised that decisions regarding drug therapy are complex medical decisions requiring the independent, informed decision of an appropriate health care professional, and the information is provided for informational purposes only. The entire monograph for a drug should be reviewed for a thorough understanding of the drug's actions, uses and side effects. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. and Drugs.com do not endorse or recommend the use of any drug. The information is not a substitute for medical care.
AHFS Drug Information. © Copyright, 1959-2011, Selected Revisions August 2007. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc., 7272 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda, Maryland 20814.
† Use is not currently included in the labeling approved by the US Food and Drug Administration.
References
Only references cited for selected revisions after 1984 are available electronically.
100. Freundlich M, Cynamon H, Tamer A et al. Management of chloramphenicol intoxication in infancy by charcoal hemoperfusion. J Pediatr. 1983; 103:485-7. [IDIS 175139] [PubMed 6886919]
101. Bartlett JG. Chloramphenicol. Med Clin North Am. 1982; 66:91-102. [PubMed 7038343]
102. Shalit I, Marks MI. Chloramphenicol in the 1980s. Drugs. 1984; 28:281-91. [IDIS 193569] [PubMed 6386425]
103. Prober CG, Jadavji T, Soldin SJ. Effect of rifampin on chloramphenicol levels. N Engl J Med. 1985; 312:788-9. [IDIS 198165] [PubMed 3974656]
104. Standiford HC. Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG Jr, Bennett JE, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 2nd ed. New York; John Wiley & Sons; 1985:206-16.
105. Marks MI, LaFerriere C. Chloramphenicol: recent developments and clinical indications. Clin Pharm. 1982; 1:315-20. [IDIS 154494] [PubMed 6764390]
106. Anon. The choice of antibacterial drugs. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 2001; 43: 69-78.
107. Ambrose PJ. Clinical pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol and chloramphenicol succinate. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1984; 9:222-38. [IDIS 186221] [PubMed 6375931]
108. Mulhall A, de Louvois J, Hurley R. Chloramphenicol toxicity in neonates: its incidence and prevention. BMJ. 1983; 287:1424-7. [IDIS 178991] [PubMed 6416440]
109. Kauffman RE, Miceli JN, Strebel L et al. Pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol and chloramphenicol succinate in infants and children. J Pediatr. 1981; 98:315-20. [IDIS 137940] [PubMed 7463235]
110. Kucers A, Bennett NM. The use of antibiotics. 3rd ed. London: William Heineman Medical Books Ltd; 1979:420-56.
112. Parke-Davis. Chloromycetin sodium succinate (sterile chloramphenicol sodium succinate) for intravenous administration prescribing information (dated 1996 Aug). In: Physicians’ desk reference. 52nd ed. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company Inc; 1998:2081-2.
113. Shann F, Linnemann V, Mackenzie A et al. Absorption of chloramphenicol sodium succinate after intramuscular administration in children. N Engl J Med. 1985; 313:410-4. [IDIS 203367] [PubMed 4022068]
114. Sack CM, Koup JR, Smith AL. Chloramphenicol pharmacokinetics in infants and young children. Pediatrics. 1980; 66:579-84. [IDIS 123431] [PubMed 7432844]
115. Nahata MC, Powell DA. Chloramphenicol serum concentration falls during chloramphenicol succinate dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1983; 33:308-13. [IDIS 168659] [PubMed 6825386]
116. Brown TH, Alford HR. Antagonism by chloramphenicol of broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1984; 25:405-7. [IDIS 184272] [PubMed 6375551]
117. Centers for Disease Control. Rocky mountain spotted fever—United States, 1988. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1989; 38:513-5. [PubMed 2501644]
118. Fishbein DB. Treatment of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. JAMA. 1988; 260:3192.
119. Asmar BI, Prainito M, Dajani AS. Antagonistic effect of chloramphenicol in combination with cefotaxime of ceftriaxone. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1988; 32:1375-8. [IDIS 248089] [PubMed 3195999]
120. Dance DA, Wuthiekanun V, Chaowagul W et al. Interactions in vitro between agents used to treat melioidosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1989; 24:311-6. [PubMed 2681117]
121. French GL, Ling TKW, Davies DP et al. Antagonism of ceftazidime by chloramphenicol in vitro and in vivo during treatment of gram negative meningitis. BMJ. 1985; 291:636-7. [IDIS 205179] [PubMed 3928061]
122. Cephalosporins interactions: chloramphenicol. In: Hansten PD, Horn JR. Drug interactions: clinical significance of drug-drug interactions. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1989:213-4.
123. Swerdlow DL, Ries AA. Cholera in the Americas: guidelines for the clinician. JAMA. 1992; 267:1495-9. [PubMed 1371570]
124. Flegg P, Cheong I, Welsby PD. Chloramphenicol: are concerns about aplastic anemia justified? Drug Safety. 1992; 7:167-9.
125. Jorgensen JH. Update on mechanisms and prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Haemophilus influenzae. Clin Infect Dis. 1992; 14:1119-23. [PubMed 1600014]
126. Friedland IR, Klugman KP. Failure of chloramphenicol therapy in penicillin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Lancet. 1992; 339:405-8. [IDIS 291433] [PubMed 1346668]
127. Islam A, Butler T, Nath SK et al. Randomized treatment of patients with typhoid fever by using ceftriaxone or chloramphenicol. J Infect Dis. 1988; 158:742-7. [IDIS 263618] [PubMed 3171225]
128. Saraswathi K, Deodhar LP. A study of V. cholerae strains isolated in Bombay. J Postgrad Med. 1990; 36:128-30. [PubMed 2102910]
129. Willke A, Arman D, Tolunay C. [Susceptibility of Vibrio cholerae El-Tor strains to various antibiotics]. Mikrobiyol Bul. 1988; 22:101-4. [PubMed 3273600]
130. Khan MM, Ara F, Yousuf MO et al. Outbreak of gastroenteritis in different areas of Pakistan. J Pak Med Assoc. 1989; 39:151-4. [PubMed 2504955]
131. Syrogiannopoulos GA, Grivea IN, Beratis NG et al. Resistance patterns of Streptococcus pneumoniae from carriers attendng day-dare centers in Southwestern Greece. Clin Infect Dis. 1997; 25:188-94. [IDIS 392202] [PubMed 9332508]
132. Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics. 2000 Red book: report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 25th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2000:192-3,234-6,262-72,396-401,450-60,473-5,489-93,501-6,618-20,656.
133. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human plague—India, 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1994; 43:689-91. [PubMed 8084331]
134. Islam A, Butler T, Kabir I et al. Treatment of typhoid fever with ceftriaxone for 5 days or chloramphenicol for 14 days: a randomized clinical trial. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993; 37:1572-5. [IDIS 318762] [PubMed 8215265]
135. Walker DH. Rocky mountain spotted fever: a seasonal alert. Clin Infect Dis. 1995; 20:1111
